Bolsa Chica Wetlands Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bolsa Chica Wetlands - Essay Example It is assumed that the wetlands of Bolsa Chica provide shelter to a number of endangered species of flora and fauna. Recently the nature reserve of Bolsa China is also being used as a tourist-spot for nature-lovers. Since it is an important stop on the Pacific flyway of migratory birds, outbound travelers often grab the opportunity to come into the close contact of natural sceneries of the marshlands of Bolsa Chica. Apart from Bolsa Chica’s ecological importance, it has become a popular tourist spot, which provides the nature-lovers with a significant number of recreation activities such surf fishing for â€Å"perch, corbina, croaker, cabezon and sand shark†, bare-handed fishing for â€Å"California grunion, a species that only spawns on sandy southern California beaches†, bird-watching, etc. To the north and the South of Bolsa Chica Nature Reserve, there are the Warner Avenue and Seapoint Avenue, whereas there are residential areas on along border. Moreover, one can enjoy both the natural sceneries of Bolsa Chica and the oceanic beauty along the Pacific Coast Highway on the western border of Bolsa Chica. Though docent-led tour is available on the first, the second and the third Saturdays of each month, one can take a tour personal tour in these areas at any time of the year. The tours on the first Saturday and the third Saturday of each month are arranged by the â€Å"Amigos de Bolsa Chica† and the â€Å"Bolsa Chica Land Trust† from the South parking lots. Inbound nature-lovers can get a substantial knowledge about the areas’ weather, climate and geography from the Interpretive Center at Warner Ave. Bolsa Chica is endowed with some unique geographical features because of its more or less direct connection to the sea along its southern border. When we visited the area, the weather was somewhat cloudy. Though we guessed that it might rain, it did not happened finally. Before we reached there, we researched the weather st atus of Bolsa Chica by consulting the Bolsa Weather pages online. We learnt that the Bolsa Chica area has a typical weather which is applicable to any coastal area along the Tropic of Cancer. â€Å"A warm, dry Mediterranean climate,†, as it is said in Bolsa Chica page on Weather.com, â€Å"prevails over Southern California - inland it is hot in the summer, mild in the winter† (â€Å"Profile for Bolsa† pars. 3). August in Huntington is the warmest month, when the average temperature fluctuates between 900 F and 1050 F. In December, which is the coolest month, the average temperature oscillates from 200 F to 300 F. During the summer, frequent fogs prevail over the region and â€Å"most of the precipitation comes as rain† during the winter in December (â€Å"Profile for Bolsa† pars. 5). Since we visited Bolsa Chica at the end of July, the weather on our visiting day was neither foggy and nor rainy. Since Bolsa Chica stands very close to the coast of t he Pacific, the local climate remains almost moderate without much demarcation between the summer and the winters. Such moderate weather makes Bolsa Chica’s weather and climate different from the overall climatic pattern of California. Bolsa Chica, having all the characteristics of a wetland, is a rich habitat of a wide range of flora and fauna. A wetland is, indeed, a natural home of different species of birds, animals and plants. The â€Å"

ASPECT OF CONMTRACT Essay Example for Free

ASPECT OF CONMTRACT Essay Understanding the essential elements of a valid contract in a business context P1.1. Explain the importance of the essential elements required for the formation of a valid contract There are several important elements in order to form a valid contract. 1. Offer and Acceptance.- In order to create a valid contract , there must be a lawfull offer by one party and lawfull acceptance of the same by the other party 2. Intention to Create Legal Relationship- In case,there is not such intetion on the part of partyes, there is not contract. Agreements of social and domestic nature do not contemplate legal relations .Case ; Balfour vs Balfour (1919) 3. Lowfull Consideration. Consideration has been defined in various ways Acourding to Blackstone Consideration is recompense given by the party contracting to another in other words of Pollock Consideration is the price for wich the promise of the another is brought †¦.consideration is known as quid pro-quo or something in return 4. Capacity of Parties ;The parties to an agreement must be competent to contract. If either of the parties does not have the capacity to contract , the contract is not valid Accourding the following persons are incopetent to contract ; a -miners, b-persons of unsound mind c-person disqualifield by low to wich they ar subject 5. Lawfull Object.; The object of an agreement must be valid . Object has nothing to do with consideration it means to purpoase or design of the contract. This when one hires a house for use of a gambling house , the object of the contract is to run a gambling house 6. Legal formailities ; An oral Contract is a perfectly valid contract espect in those cases where writing registration etc,is required by some statute, in India writing is required in cases of sale, mortgage lease and gift on immovable propriety, negociable instrument etc 7. Certainity of Meaning; Acourding to Section 29; Agreement the meaning of wich is not Certain or capable of being made certain are avoid 8. Posibility of Performance; If the act is imposible in itselfe physically or legally if cannot be enforced at law. For example Mr A agrees with B to discover treasure by magic. SUCH agreements is not enforceable P1.2. Discuss the impact of different types of contract A contract is an agreement between two parties that must include an offer , an acceptance and a consideration .There are a variety of different types of contracts used for different purposes, in addition, certain types of contracts may be more popular in one jurisdiction than in another Bilateral and unilateral implied, viodable,executory and oral contractat are among the common types of contracts used throughout the world Bilateral contracts make up the majority of the contracts drafted. A bilateral contract consists of tho parties who are under an obligation to do something or refain from doing something. For example a contract for the sale of goods is a bilateral contract. The buyer promises to purchase the product and, in turn, the seller promises to supply the product P1.3. Analyse terms ic contract with reference to their meaning and effect The terms of an agreement may be so vague and indefinite that in reality there is no contract in existence at all. (Scammell v Quston (1941)). The presence of a vague term will not prove fatal in every case. The contract itself may provide any disputes about the operation of the agreement can be resolved. (Foley v Classique Ltd (1934)). A court can ascertain the terms of a contract by reference to a trade custom or a course of previous dealings between the parties. (Hillas Co Ltd v Arcos Ltd (1932)). A meaningless term which is subsidiary to the main agreement can be ignored and the rest of the contract enforced. (Nicolene Ltd v Simmonds (1953)). Express terms, are the details of a contract which have been specifically agreed between the parties. (Harling v Eddy (1951)). There are a number of express term that feature a standard contract such as exemption clauses, liquidated damages clauses and price variatio n clauses. This terms can effect a contract. For example liquidated damages clause can affect the term in a contract, because it lays down the amount of damages that will be payable in the event of a breach of a contract. Cancelation charges are an example of a liquidated damages clause. Implied terms, represent addition terms that are implied into an agreement. Those can be by custom (Hutton v Warren (1836), by common low (The Moorcock (1889)), or by statute. The most common being the sale or supply of goods Act 1979. Be able to apply the elements of a contract in business situations P2.1. Apply the elements of contract in a given business scenarios In the business scenario 1, at an auction sale the call for bids by an auctioneer is an invitation to treat, the bids are offers. The auctioneer selects the highest bid and acceptance is completed by the fall of the hammer. (Payne v Cave (1789)). Advertising a forthcoming auction sale does not amount to an offer to hold it. (Harris v Nickerson (1873)). An offer can be revoked at any time before the acceptance but it will only be effective when the oferee learns about it, and it is not necessary that the oferor himself should tell the oferee that the offer has been revoked. (Dikinson v Dodds (1876)). The case study shows that the offeror was Montblanc auction and Harry, Miss Kaur the oferee shown the intention to bid for pen fountain at Montblanc auction, willing to travel to Manchester for it, and she also shown intention to buy pen fountain from Harry but she did not decided 100%, therefore, even though the offer was expre ssed to be open until after lunch break, such offer can be revoked before the end of the time limit, because Miss Kaur did not agreed with the offer. A promise to keep an offer open will be binding if it can be enforced as a separate contract. A legally binding option will be created if the oferee provides some consideration in return for the offeror’s promise to keep the offer open. (Mountford v Scott (1975)). In the case study, Miss Kaur could have paid a deposit in advance to make sure she could still have the pen fountain. Consideration was shown between Harry and Miss Kaur, and each side promise something to the other party. This was not the case with the Mountblanc Auction, even if the auction for the pen collection supposed to be open, the parties did not enter into a consideration. Intention, the low is not concern itself with purely domestic or social arrangements. The parties must have intended their agreement to have legal consequences. In the first case Mountblanc auction showed the intention to offer for bid the pen fountain, and this was mention in the list of items to be auctioned, but because of one or another reason this was cancelled. On the other hand Harry shown the intention to wait until after lunch for Miss Kaur, but because it wasn’t any written contract between them, he decided to sell his pen fountain with a better price of  £1000, breaching the informal contract that he had with Miss Kaur. In the context of contract low, Miss Kaur cannot take any action against the auctioneer for the expense of her travel to the auction and she cannot take any action to  Harry for not selling the fountain pen to her. Business scenario 1, shows that the agreement between Charles, owner of a house, and Murphy, who supposed to make renovation in the house by a set amount of money ( £50.000), at a specific date. Secondly, consideration is shown in the case study where both parties agreed to give something in return. Charles agreed to pay  £50.000 for the house renovation, and Murphy agreed with the sum initially. Intention, is shown when Murphy asked for an increase in salary in order for the job to be done in time, even if Charles agreed initially, than he turn his back on the offer that he made, respecting only the legal terms from the contract. In this situation Murphy can’t make any legal action against Charles. Capacity, in this case both parties where capable of fulfilling their commitments. Charles paying for the service, Murphy capable of doing the service. Genuineness of cons cent appeared between parties, when the initial contract was formed. Here was the time for Murphy to argue for an increase in salary, and not at a later date. Legality element of the contract is present, because it is nothing illegal or contrary to public policy. P2.2. Apply the law on terms in different contracts A standard form contract (sometimes referred to as an adhesion or boilerplate contract) is a contract between two parties, where the terms and conditions of the contract are set by one of the parties, and the other party has little or no ability to negotiate more favourable terms and is thus placed in a take it or leave it position. Examples of standard form contracts are insurance policies (where the insurer decides what it will and will not insure, and the language of the contract) and contracts with government agencies (where certain clauses must be included by law or regulation). For example MetLife insurance company, has the terms of the contract are contained in a written document, the parties will be quite clear about what they have agreed to and this is likely to minimise the possibility of disputes a later stage. For example MetLife can make a contract of a life cover with a minimum of  £7, in which the client would know the standard terms and condition stipulated in the c ontract. It would be very time- consuming to negotiate individual terms with every customer, because the company is offering a standard service to a large number of people. Standard form, business-to-consumer contracts fulfil  an important efficiency role in the mass distribution of goods and services. These contracts have the potential to reduce transaction costs by eliminating the need to negotiate the many details of a contract for each instance a product is sold or a service is used. However, these contracts also have the ability to trick or abuse consumers because of the unequal bargaining power between the parties. For example, where a standard form contract is entered into between an ordinary consumer and the salesperson of a multinational corporation, the consumer typically is in no position to negotiate the standard terms. As example MetLife representative often does not have the authority to alter the terms, even if either side to the transaction were capable of understanding all the terms in the fine print. These contracts are typically drafted by corporate lawyers far away from where the underlying consumer and vendor transaction takes place. The danger of accepting unfair or unconscionable terms is greatest where these artful drafters of such contracts present consumers with attractive terms on the visible or â€Å"shopped† terms of most interest to consumers, such as price and quality, but then slip one-sided terms benefiting the seller into the less visible, fine print clauses least likely to be read or understood by consumers. For example a customer of MetLife can be assured for accident protection, but there are only a specific accident that the company may cover the client. In many cases, the consumer may not even see these contracts until the transaction has occurred. In some cases, the seller knows and takes advantage of the knowledge that consumers will not read or make decisions on these unfair terms.(Standard Form of Contracts, 2014). P2.3. Evaluate the effect of different terms in given contracts In the business scenario 4, terms stipulated in the contract are the payment for the research assistant ( £25000) and the working hours, witch in this case are â€Å"whatever hours are necessary to complete the assignments given to her†. Section 1 of Employment Rights Act 1996 that in fact requires the employer to state the amount of hours worked by the employee. Disciplinary procedures had to be insert in the terms of a contract, where, for example Miss Y had to receive a number of warnings that will be given to her before suspension or dismissal, for her behaviour of wearing trousers and not a dress, on the morning of 2nf June. Because of this terms of the contract, Miss Y can  appeal to grievance procedures that relate to complains in regard to any aspect of the employment with witch the employee is not satisfied. In this case dismissal for asserting the right is automatically unfair and there is no service requirements by reason of section 104 of the ERA 1996. (Riches, S. Allen, V. 2011). Under the Employment Act 2002, Miss Y can claim compensation for unfair dismissal. She can also claim because of the Working Time Regulation (SI 1998/1833),where is stipulated that the employee has a maximum of 48 of work a week, a daily rest of period at least 11 consecutive hours in 24 hours, and in work rest break of 20 minutes for those working more them 6 hours daily. Miss Y, could also claim compensation and Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, if the court finds that she receives medical treatment for depression due to the employment environment. Understand principles of liability in negligence in business activities P3.1. Contrast liability in tort with contractual liability Tort liability arises out of a civil wrong, for example, people who do business, sole proprietor or in a partnership are liable for the torts committed by themselves and for torts committed in the course of the business by their agent and/or partners. However, one may avoid tort liability for the acts of business associates if they operate their business as a corporation or a limited liability company. Thus, the choice of entity is too perceived to have potential benefit if one is concerned about limiting one’s tort liability. Regardless of what type of business organization a person is liable for torts committed by himself, if for example he/ she is driving the company vehicle and are involved in an accident the other party is liable if he/she negligently operated the vehicle whether he/she operate as a corporation, partnership or sole proprietor. (Business Law, 2014). Contractual Liability, appears when a corporation or a limited liability company may protect one’s pe rsonal assets should the operator incur a significant contractual liability from the business operation. For example, a building contractor signs a contract to construct an office building for a business client and fails to meet the contractual deadline, the business client holds the contractor liable for consequential damages profits lost for the time the client is not able to occupy the new building. Particularly in the construction area, contractual  liability may exceed simply the contract price. So long as one does not personally guarantee the contract of the business entity, his or her personal assets, assets owned outside the corporation or LLC, are protected as the corporate operator should not be personally liable for the corporate debts, contracts and contractual liabilities. Often, however, people dealing with corporations demand that the principals of the corporation personally guarantee the contracts. (Business Law, 2014). P3.2. Explain the nature of liability in negligence Liability of negligence appears when a claimant is able to prove that: â€Å"the defendant owed him a legal duty of care; the defendant was in breach of their duty; and the claimant suffered injury or loss as a result of the breach†. (Riches, S. Allen, V. 2011:348). For example a producer of goods may be liable to a consumer for loss and damage caused by his defective product under the tort of negligence. A consumer must establish the manufacturer owed him a duty of care. In Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) case, House of Lords established the principles that a manufacturer was a duty of care to all persons who are likely to come into contact with his goods. The breach in duty occurs if the fallowing factors such as the like hood that the damage or injury will be incurred, the serious of any damage or injury, the cost and ease of taking precautions and the social need for the activity. (Balton v Stone (1951). In the final part the claimant has to prove that he suffered damage if t his damage was caused by a negligent misstatement as in the case of Hedley Byrne Co Ltd v Heller and Partners Ltd (1963), or it was consequent upon foreseeable physical injury or damage to property such in the case of Junior Brooks Ltd v Veitcho Co Ltd (1982). P3.3. Explain how a business can be vicariously liable Employers can be held vicariously liable for acts of negligence or omission on the part of their employees in the course of employment even if the employer did not authorise or was unaware of the acts in question. To mount a successful defence, an employer must demonstrate either that the employee was not negligent or that the employee was acting in an individual capacity unrelated to the business of the employer. In some circumstances employers may also be liable for the misdemeanours of their independent contractors or  workers employed by a third party, such as an agency. For example, this applies where the employer authorises the wrongful act or had overall responsibility that could not be delegated. For example an employee that works for a catering agency, who does wrong doing at one of the clients that the agency is sending him to work for, the agency can be responsible for. The main deciding factor as to which employer has the responsibility for a sub-contractor or agency worker is that of control. The employer who gives direction and instructions for the work to be conducted will usually be the one to bear responsibility for misdemeanours carried out during the course of that work. If more than one employer can be identified as having control over the work of the employee then the principle of dual vicarious liability may apply. This is a principle introduced by the decision of Lord Justice May in the recent case of Via systems (Tyneside) Limited v Thermal Transfer (Northern) Limited Others. The case involved compensation for a flood at a factory which had been caused by the sub-contractor of a sub-contractor. In his ruling, Lord Justice May decided that more than one employ er could be subject to a claim and that the amounts awarded should be split equal unless it could be clearly demonstrated that one party bore more of the responsibility than the other. This courageous decision overturned the principle established in Laugher v Pointer in 1826 that only one employer could be held vicariously liable. (Vicarious Liability, 2014). Be able to apply principles of liability in negligence in business situations P4.1. Apply the elements of the tort of negligence and defences in different business situations The tort of negligence is concern with certain kinds of careless conduct with cause damage or loss to others. As explain in task 3.2. There are three factors to consider. Firstly duty of care, if this duty is break and if the other party suffered any damages. In the Business Scenario 5 it is presented the fact that a UK ship was taking oil in Sydney harbour, spilling oil in the water, and because of a spark it set fire to a wharf witch was at 200 yards distance. The case also shows that safety precaution were taken but does not explain how. On the one hand, it can be argued therefore that the duty of care of the UK ship was broken, because the ship supposed to take more precautions on the duty of care and harm any neighbour. The defendant has break their duty of care  because the likelihood of an accident such as this could be foreseen. On the other hand, it can be argued that the defendant can claim â€Å"res ipsa loquitur†, witch mean that the facts spick for themselves, and it can be prove to court that the UK ship took enough safety precaution to avoid any accident, therefore the defendant would not be seen as negligent. The condition must be satisfied for res ipsa to come to play are in case of the event which caused the accident must have been the defendant’s control, witch in this case can be argued that it was, and the accident must be in such nature that it would not have occurred if proper care had been taken by the defendant, witch again could be argued that the ship took enough safety precaution. The damage that occur after this accident was that the claimant suffered damaged on his wharf, thereby he has to prove in court that this damages was made as a consequences of the UK ship actions in the harbour. In the case of Business Scenario 6, the negligence was made by Shell, because they had failed to provide protection goggles to Bell while he was working in spite of the fact that this was not a normal practice at the firm. Negligence was also made but the employee Bell, because firstly he supposed to protect himself especially because he had lost one eye, and he could have been more precaut. The breach of duty was made by Shell, because the job that Bell has implied vehicle maintenance, and while working with materials such as metals, the company should have provided protection for Bell under the Consumer Protection Act 1987. Bell, can therefore claim compensation for its employee negligence towards him, because he suffered injury while working at Shell Company. P4.2. Apply the elements of vicarious liability in given business situations Low states that an employer is liable for damage caused to another person by his employee, while the employee was caring out his work. The employer is liable even though he was not in any way at fault, and this rule even if seems to be unfair for the employer, it is based upon the law and policy. Employer and employee are regarded as â€Å"associated parties† in the business in which both are engaged. In the Business Scenario 7 and 8, Alf and Amos Bridge breach their contractual duties, therefore because they were acting at work, the employer is automatically consider guilty as well by the court. References: 1. Business Law, Available at: http://pullman-wa.com/law/businessLaw.htm, [Accessed on 12.03.2014]; 2. Riches, S. Allen, V. (2011), Keenan and Riches’ BUSINESS LAW, 10th (ed), Pearson: London; 3. Standard form Contracts, Available at: http://faircontracts.org/what-are-standard-form-contracts, [Accessed on 15.03.2014]; 4. Vicarious Liability , Available at : http://www.uktrainingworldwide.com/BB/VicariousLiability.htm; [Accessed on 13.03.2014];

Wellbore Instability and Borehole Breakout

Wellbore Instability and Borehole Breakout Introduction: Despite the development of oil and gas industry technology, Wellbore instability remains one of non productive time that cost industry billions every year. wellbore instability has been one of the well planning stage and been studied widely (Bradley,1979; Bell, 2003; Zhang et al., 2003; Gentzis et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009; Ding, 2011). Drilling through a formation led to stress changing a round the borehole due to rock removal. In this analysis, mud weight pressure is the controllable parameter during the drilling. The mud weight pressure effects can cause two failure mechanisms which are shear failure (breakout) and tensile failure (fracturing), these problems consider as the main wellbore failure. Borehole breakout happens when the mud weight is lower than expected. in other word, the breakout failure occurs when the stress imposed by drilling mud lower than compressive strength. On the other hand, higher mud weight can lead to tensile failure due to invade of mud into the fo rmation. The consequences behind these problems are stuck pipe, reaming operation, lost circulation, and sidetracking. To eliminate these problems many parameters should be considered such us rock strength, pore pressure, in-situ stress, and stress orientation. Furthermore, breakout and fracturing can be diminishing or eliminate by choosing the suitable mud weight for drilling. By using a constitutive model to predict the stresses around the wellbore connected with a failure criteria, Strength of reservoir rocks can be calculated. Hence, selection of the suitable failure criteria will consider as the main part of wellbore stability analysis. Borehole breakout is an enlargement and elongation of wellbore in a particular direction and it considers as the important indicators to predict the orientation of min. horizontal stress. This enlargement can be predicted by using 4-6 arm caliper tool, Optical imaging log, resistive image log, and acoustic image log (Jaeger et al.,2009; Bell and Gough, 1979; Zoback et al.,1985).   Figure (1) shows wellbore enlargement pattern via 4 arm caliper. The 4 arms caliper has 4 pads in two calipers (pad 1 and 3) represent Caliper 1 (C1) and (pad 2 and 4) represent caliper 2 (C2). The diameter of the hole can be identified from those two calipers. Fig 1a represents an in-gauge hole cause C1 and C2 have same reading of bit size. In contrast 1C shows a severe washout in hole size and caliper reading show this enlargement. Stand on well logs data and empirical equations, the rock strength and mechanical properties can be obtained (Rahimi, 2014). (Westergarrd. 1940) in-situ stress can be obtained by elastic characteristic equations. Also, from elastoplastic characteristic equation in-situ stress can be calculated (chang et al., 2006). As well , (LOT) and mini frac. test can help us to determine in-situ stresses (Bardley 1979b). Many models have been built to determine the induced stress in a circular well and predict the suitable mud pressure by using Failure criteria. In this analysis, three failure criteria have been used to predict the proper mud weight in the Nahr Umr formation in southern Iraq. The three failure criteria are Mohr-coulomb, Mogi-coulomb, and modified lade. Fig (1) Caliper log responses due to wellbore enlargement (Tingay ) Geological properties of the field and the target reservoir. The H oil filed is a land-based field located in southeastern Iraq between the city of  Basra and the Kuwait border (Figure 2). The field is an anticline that runs roughly north-west to south-southeast approximately 60 km long and 10-15 km wide. The anticline of H field has four domes divided by saddles, from the northwest to southeast these are: Al-Hamar Shuaiba Rafidyah Safwan Fig (3) The four domes in H filed The discovered reserves are contained in five reservoirs: Mishrif, Nahr Umr, Zubair 3rd Pay, Zubair 4th Pay and Yamama. (Figure 3) represents well stratigraphic. Nahr Umr Formation is an interesting potential water source zone due to the abundance of log data through the unit, water salinity that is compatible with the Mishrif and Zubair Formation waters, and the reported extent and strength of the aquifer. It is composed mainly of Sandstone interbedded with streaks of (Shale, Siltstone Limestone). Average thickness of Nahr Umr formation is +/- 260 m and the porosity exceed 25% with an average of 20% permeability ranges from 1000 md to 9000 md. Depends on information from more than fifteen wells, shear failure has been noticed in Nahr Umr formation specially at the shale layers. This breakout has been shown on shale shaker and by caliper log. Fig (4) stratigraphic of H field

Structure in Sophocles Antigone Essay -- Antigone essays S

Structure in Sophocles' Antigone  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   Aristotle in his Poetics (chap. 7) says: ?[L]et us now discuss the proper structure of the plot, since this is the first and most important thing in tragedy? (1033). M. H. Abrams says that ?almost all literary theorists since Aristotle have emphasized the importance of structure, conceived in diverse ways, in analyzing a work of literature? (300). The matter of the structure of Sophocles? Antigone is a subject of varying interpretation among literary critics, as this essay will reveal. Gilbert Murray, professor at Oxford University in England, cites structure as one of the reasons why he chose Sophocles to translate. Then he elaborates on this structure: ?But Sophocles worked by blurring his structural outlines just as he blurs the ends of his verses. In him the traditional divisions are all made less distinct, all worked over the direction of greater naturalness. . . .This was a very great gain. . . .? (107). Murray here refers to Sophocles? modification of the classic structure for tragic drama. This is distinct from what Aristotle above refers to as the ?structure of the plot.? The classic structure for drama includes: Prologue ? everything up to the chorus; Parodos ? the chorus? sings; First Episode ? development of plot by main character(s); First Stasimon ? the chorus again; Repetition of Episodes and Stasimons until the climax is near; Exodos ? the climax, crisis, and catastrophe. As Murray notes, Sophocles does not adhere to the classical structure as rigid ly as other dramatists of the period. Aristotle?s ?structure of the plot? is what most literary critics mean when they refer to the ?structure? of Antigone. In Chapter 18 of the Poetics Aristotle states: ?Ever... ...s Hurt. NewYork: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1984.    Murray, Gilbert. ?A Great Translator?s Reflections on Oedipus the King.? In Readings on Sophocles, edited by Don Nardo. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 1997.    Segal, Charles Paul. ?Sophocles? Praise of Man and the Conflicts of the Antigone.? In Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Thomas Woodard. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.    Sophocles. Antigone. Translated by R. C. Jebb. The Internet Classic Archive. no pag. http://classics.mit.edu/Sophocles/antigone.html    ?Sophocles? In Literature of the Western World, edited by Brian Wilkie and James Hurt. NewYork: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1984.    Woodard, Thomas. Introduction. In Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Thomas Woodard. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

Interpersonal Relationships: Development And Deterioration Essay

There is an adage that says, ‘No man is an island’. Every man or woman if I am permitted is sustained by some form of some form of interaction with people. Man was made for it, so to live without it is like taking a fish out of its natural habitat. What do you expect from such a fish? It will surely die. You ever wonder what the world would look like without somebody to lean on, talk to, and share your feelings with. One could explode carrying all that ‘burden’ on one’s mind. Even from the religious perspective, the Bible has it that God made man for himself, so he could talk relate to someone. You wonder if God needed relationship, why we would not need it more. All social intercourse between human beings is a response of personality to personality, grading upwards from the most casual brush from people to people to the fullest, and most intimate of which the human soul is capable. An interpersonal relationship is simply a person to person association between two or more people. This could be a love relationship (marriage), family, work, and people living in your neighbourhood etc. In this kind of relationship, there is some level of interpersonal knowledge where both parties have certain knowledge of the other person(s) involved. In all of these relationships, on thing is evident, there is a bond or a tie formed between them. In other words, interpersonal relationships are about meeting the needs of one another. Not limiting this interpersonal relationship idea to man alone, even animals and plants. In Biology, we were taught Symbiosis as a form of relationship existing between algae and Fungi. Even the plants need each other to live. We see that every form of life is sustained by some form of relationship(s). These relationships also have their effects on us, either positively or negatively. Take a sample study on people who engage in interpersonal relationship, you will notice a rubbing off that occurs in both parties. You see that each one picks some attitudes of the other and exhibits them unconsciously. And you wonder, how did that happen? Every interpersonal relationship operates by certain principles which we overlook. People just don’t become intimate or close all of a sudden. It begins with a law called ATTRACTION. Since relationships are choices we make individually and not forcibly, we naturally relate with people we are physically attracted to. Spending QUALITY TIME with the other party involved. Taking a marriage relationship for example, one major reason for the break ups that we see in marriages is the lack of spending quality time with the other party. This leaves the other party very lonely, and this could open the door for infidelity and a lot more. Since we said earlier that relationships is about meeting needs, then NOT BEING SELFISH also helps develop interpersonal relationships. The key to a good interpersonal relationship is simple once you understand the role that needs play in making a relationship weak, moderate, average, or strong. Relationships are strong when there is a ‘give and take’ rule in operation ‘Relationship deterioration refers to the weakening of the bonds that hold people together. This happens when both parties are currently unhappy with the state of things. Among the causes of the deterioration include: financial problems, sex-related problems, work –related problems, third-party relationships and many more’. For the fact that one has problems in interpersonal relationships does not make you the first person with issues, neither does it make you a failure. What we need to do is to put the matter on the table, settle issues and make things work between us. This is the key to every long standing relationship till now and will always be. References: Goldman, B (2008), â€Å"Improving Interpersonal relationships. † Pearson, A (2008), ‘Interpersonal Relationships: Growth and Deterioration -The Interpersonal Communication Book. Tanner, D. (1990) Women and men in conversation. New York: Ballantine Books. Doyle, T (2000). Types of Interpersonal Relationships

Behavioral and Social/Cognitive Approaches to Forming Habits Essay

Behavioral and Social/Cognitive Approaches to Forming Habits According to the American Psychological Association, â€Å"Obesity is a condition marked by excess accumulation of body fat. Genetic factors play a key role in obesity, but so do behavioral factors — especially eating too much and exercising too little. † Behavioral and social/cognitive theories approach the habit from two different perspectives and both theories can explain reasoning behind the habit. However creating a plan that will apply operant conditioning can change a habit. A child can be in a normal weight range up until a specific age, once that child turned ten they began to gain weight. As a child, the environment around them tends to be a major influence on behavior; however when looking at examples such as close relatives their eating habits appeared to be similar over the generations as well as their size. The eating habits the child has formed, which contributed to their weight gain, could be because of the influence specific people have in their life such as family members or a habit formed due to their environment. Growing up and being told not to move until your plate is empty or that you can’t have dessert until all your vegetables are gone, were common statements that a child may hear and actions that they watched their families make. Other factors such as growing up in a single parent household with a parent that didn’t have time to cook and constantly fed their children the dollar menu could impact that child’s later habits in life. Now when that child is an adult they continue the same eating habits constantly finishing everything on their plate or frequently eating out to save time and is facing obesity as the result. In order to change this habit and individual may consider using operant conditioning. Operant conditioning uses a reward/punishment system to reinforce behaviors and is more closely used during social cognitive therapy. There may be various factors or theories which contribute to an individual’s eating habit but in this case social cognitive theory may apply more appropriately. Developing a plan to change an eating habit may be creating a new lifestyle. By using tools such as portion control, exercise, and using a food tracking. First step is to eat proper portions of the right food, next track the food to be aware of how much food an individual is eating, lastly exercise. Rewards for following this plan will be decrease in weight, which means new clothes for every ten pounds lost, also the ability to eat additional food items throughout the day if exercising. Punishments if not following the plan will be additional work out time, no snacks and no new clothes if not losing the weight. If an individual can stick to the plan then ultimately an individual will eliminate the habit of over eating and live a healthier lifestyle.

Antigone by Sophocles - Plot Summary

Antigone by Sophocles - Plot Summary Antigone is a Greek Tragedy written by Sophocles. It was written in 441 B.C. Setting of the Play: Ancient Greece Antigones Twisted Family Tree A brave and proud young woman named Antigone is the product of a really messed up family. Her father, Oedipus, was the King of Thebes. He unknowingly murdered his father and married his own mother, Queen Jocasta. With his wife/mother, Oedipus had two daughter/sisters and two brother/sons. When Jocasta found out the truth of their incestuous relationship, she killed herself. Oedipus was pretty upset too. He plucked out his eyeballs. Then, he spent his remaining years wandering through Greece, being led by his loyal daughter Antigone. After Oedipus died, his two sons (Eteocles and Polynices) battled for control of the kingdom. Eteocles fought to defend Thebes. Polynices and his men attacked the city. Both brothers died. Creon ( Antigones uncle) became the official ruler of Thebes. (Theres a lot of upward mobility in this city-state. Thats what happens when your bosses kill each other.) Divine Laws v. Man-made Laws Creon buried Eteocless body with honor. But because the other brother was perceived as a traitor, Polynicess body was left to rot, a tasty snack for vultures and vermin. However, leaving human remains unburied and exposed to the elements was an affront to the Greek Gods. So, at the plays beginning, Antigone decides to defy Creons laws. She gives her brother a proper funeral. Her sister Ismene warns that Creon will punish any who defy the law of the city. Antigone believes that the law of the gods supersedes a kings decree. Creon doesnt see things that way. He is very angry and sentences Antigone to death. Ismene asks to be executed along with her sister. But Antigone doesnt want her by her side. She insists that she alone buried the brother, so she alone will receive punishment (and possible reward from the gods). Creon Needs To Loosen Up As if things werent complicated enough, Antigone has a boyfriend: Haemon, the son of Creon. He tries to convince his father that mercy and patience are called for. But the more they debate, the more Creons anger grows. Haemon leaves, threatening to do something rash. At this point, the people of Thebes, represented by the Chorus, are uncertain as to who is right or wrong. It seems Creon is starting to feel a little bit worried because instead of executing Antigone, he orders her to be sealed inside a cave. (That way, if she dies, her death will be in the hands of the gods). But after she is sent to her doom, a blind old wise man enters. He is Tiresias, a seer of the future, and he brings an important message: Creon, you made a big stupid mistake! (It sounds fancier in Greek.) Suspecting the old man of treason, Creon becomes infuriated and refuses Tiresias wisdom. The old man becomes very cranky and predicts bad things for Creons near future. Creon Changes His Mind (Too Late) Finally scared, Creon rethinks his decisions. He dashes off to release Antigone. But hes too late. Antigone has already hanged herself. Haemon grieves beside her body. He attacks his father with a sword, misses completely, and then stabs himself, dying. Mrs. Creon (Eurydice) hears of her sons death and kills herself. (I hope you werent expecting a comedy.) By the time Creon returns to Thebes, the Chorus tells Creon the bad news. They explain that There is no escape from the doom we must endure. Creon realizes that his stubbornness has led to his familys ruin. The Chorus ends the play by offering a final message: The mighty words of the proud are paid in full with mighty blows of fate. The End!

Foreign Policy of the Obama Administration

Foreign Policy of the Obama Administration Free Online Research Papers â€Å"There is a great exhalation of breath going on around the world. We’ve got a lot of damage to repair.† This are the words of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, which I believe best describe the expectations and the also the objectives of the new American President Barack Obama. There is no doubt that those, who followed the 2008 US Presidential Elections, have witnessed history in the making, because this event will not affect only the future of the US but also of the entire international scene. But what damage exactly is Hillary Clinton speaking of? What are the main concerns of this Administration? Of course the immediate challenge of the Barack Obama is resolving the Economical crisis. But what I think to be one of the main reasons for which Obama was elected is the change he promised at an international level. What he must face first is the unpopularity of the US in the world, unpopularity that represents a great setback when it comes to Foreign Affairs. This problem is best described by Madeline Albright, former Secretary of State, who, when asked about the image of the US in the world, said: â€Å"I feel very strongly about this country, and what an exceptional country it is. But I honestly think it is about as bad as I’ve seen it†¦ I think Iraq will go down in history as the greatest disaster of American foreign policy – worse than Vietnam.† In his first major foreign policy speech of his campaign given on April 23, 2007 to the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, Obama delineated his foreign policy goals, emphasizing five key points: bringing a responsible end to this war in Iraq and refocusing on the critical challenges in the broader region,; building the first truly 21st century military and showing wisdom in how we deploy it,; marshalling a global effort to meet a threat that rises above all others in urgency – securing, destroying, and stopping the spread of weapons of mass destruction,; rebuild and construct the alliances and partnerships necessary to meet common challenges and confront common threats, and while America can help others build more secure societies, we must never forget that only the citizens of these nations can sustain them. As we see grand U.S. foreign policy goals will likely remain the same: The US will still wants to discourage security competition in Europe and Asia, prevent the emergence of hostile great powers, promote a more open world economy, inhibit the spread of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and expand democracy and respect for human rights. Since 9/11 the campaign against global terrorism has been the central aim of American foreign and defense policy and with Obama as Commander-in-chief we will witness a return to where it started, Afghanistan. Right from his opening speech, Obama, expanding on his foreign policy, implied that he planed to set in motion the process of withdrawing from Iraq and maintaining the concentration over the conflict in Afghanistan. As one who considers himself to be a pragmatic when it comes to foreign policy, he stated even as early as 2002, in a speech, against the Iraq War, â€Å"I don’t oppose all wars†¦ What I am opposed to is a dumb war†¦ a rash war, a war based not on reason but on passion, not on principle but on politics†¦ I know also that Saddam poses no imminent and direct threat to the United States, or to its neighbors, that the Iraqi economy is in shambles, that the Iraqi military is a fraction of its former strength, and that in concert with the international community can be contained until, in the way of all petty dictators, he falls away into the dustbin of history. I know that even if a successful war against Iraq will require a US occupation of undetermine d length, at undetermined cost, with undetermined consequences.† Obama believes that the war was a strategic blunder and opposed it from the beginning: â€Å"This war distracts us from every threat that we face and so many opportunities that we could seize. This war diminishes our security, our standing in the world, our military, our economy, and the resources we need to confront the challenges of the twenty-first century. By any measure, our single-minded and open-ended focus on Iraq is not a sound strategy for keeping America safe.† He is on record as wanting to withdraw US forces from Iraq within 16 months. Given the decrease in violence in Iraq since the US ‘surge’ there has been greater responsibility of Iraqi affairs transferred to the Iraqi government themselves, this maybe possible. However, because it is a delicate situation any hastily withdraw of US forces may prove counter-productive as there is the potential for violence on a major scale to erupt again. As we said before, while the number of US troops in Iraq will decrease, the number in Afghanistan will rise as key decisions will be made on re-deployments. The Afghanistan/Pakistan region is central to US interests. This hot spot is of immense strategic importance not only to American security but also to global security. This area could also be seen as a potential bridge between South and Central Asia. Obama wants to focus American energies on the region. This is evident given his decision to visit Afghanistan before Iraq when he toured the Middle East in July 08. In a speech made also in July 08 Obama stated if elected president he would send more combat troops to Afghanistan, about 17,000, and focus on training their security forces, increase the non-military assistance in order to change the mindsets and livelihoods of the population in the hope that the economy would grow. And although he wants to change the US policy on Pakistan by tripling non-military aid to the country and help build a strong democracy which in turn would help towards securing nuclear weapons from terrorists and rogue states. What Obama is trying to get accomplished in Afghanistan and Pakistan is the disruption, dismantling, and defeat of al-Qaeda, the destruction of any al-Qaeda safe haven, to protect the Afghan government and to fortify the capability of the Afghan security forces and government to improve the protect of their population. There is also tension between India and Pakistan who both possess nuclear weapons. This conflict has been ongoing since August 1947 when India and Pakistan were created from British India. Recent developments in this conflict involve the Kashmir region with Pakistan controlling the northwest portion, India controlling the central and southern portion and China controlling the northeastern portion of Kashmir. The Obama Administration has received criticism in response to the lack of immediate interest in India, many of the former Bush Administration underlining the importance of having India as an ally in the region and urging Obama to improve his relations to the South-Asian state. Iran will also be high up on the agenda for President Obama. In July 07 Obama said he would meet with the leaders of Iran and other rogue states such as Syria and North Korea without pre-conditions. Now this stance has changed slightly to meeting them only after the proper ground work has been established and at a time and place of his choosing. It must be noted however, that the use of force against Iran has not been ruled out by Obama but he did say that â€Å"it would be a profound mistake for us to initiate a war with Iran.† Talking about the plans he has for the situation in the broader Middle East, in his Foreign Affairs article in July/August 2007, Obama stated that if elected President he wants a clear and strong commitment to the security of Israel and identify and strengthen those who are committed to peace and isolate those who seek conflict and instability. In relation to Syria, a similar process to that of Iran will be pursued, that of diplomacy and pressure. In regard to the problems between Israel and the Palestinians Obama expressed concern that Israeli settlements and demolition of Arab homes in East Jerusalem will slow down the peace process. Together with Secretary of State Clinton he also sustained the idea of establishing a Palestinian state a solution encouraged by Israeli Foreign Minister and opposition leader-to-be Tzipi Livni, but not sanctioned by Prime Minister-designate Benjamin Netanyahu. Obama also reprimanded the denial of the Holocaust and anti-Semitism declaring: Six million Jews were killed more than the entire Jewish population of Israel today. Denying that fact is baseless, ignorant, and hateful†¦Threatening Israel with destruction or repeating vile stereotypes about Jews is deeply wrong, and only serves to evoke in the minds of Israelis this most painful of memories while preventing the peace that the people of this region deserve. Obama believes the US should work closely with China and Russia to address the major issues facing not only the US but the world, climate change and spread of nuclear weapons. These issues are global problems which require global solutions thus working closely with these major powers is essential. Relations with China and Russia have been largely tranquil since 9/11, however this may change in the near future especially with Russia given the recent disagreements with the US over Georgia and the Polish missile defense. The main principles that should describe the US relations with Russia in the near future are co-operation and consultation. The first step worth mentioning would be the fact that Russia deferred its plan to place missiles on the Polish border near Kaliningrad after being assured by the Obama Administration that the former plans of deploying a missile defense shield in Poland and the Czech Republic are being reviewed. Of course, there still remain grounds on which the two â€Å"superpowers† will not agree upon, like recognition by the US of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states or the existence of any type of sphere of influence. What’s more, former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger has been negotiating the reduction of nuclear inventories on behalf of the Obama Administration. Also President Obama met with President Medveev, and both declared that We are ready to move beyond Cold War mentalities and chart a fresh start in relations between our two countries. On July 6, 2009, President Barack Obama and President Dimitry Medveev held a three hour meeting in the Kremlin in Russia. They agreed to a reduction of their nuclear stockpiles within seven years after a new treaty is created. The START I treaty, which is the current nuclear weapons agreement between the two countries, expires in December 2009. With China economic issues may prove to be the key in US/China relations. Obama has argued for a strategy combining engagement and balancing, and encourages China to play a greater role in finding solutions to global problems. He is noted as saying â€Å"we will compete with China in some areas and cooperate in others. Our essential challenge is to build a relationship that broadens cooperation while strengthening our ability to compete.† On April 1, 2009, Obama and Hu Jintao announced the establishment of the high-level U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue co-chaired by Hillary Clinton and Timothy Geithner on the U.S. side and Dai Bingguo and Wang Qishan on the Chinese side. The meeting took place on July 27-28, 2009 in Washington, D.C. Closer alliances and increasing cooperation between the US and Russia and China will have another advantage when it comes to another situation that merits close US attention in the new Obama administration, North Korea. Recently its leader Kim Jong II has been reported as being in bad health thus the country faces an uncertain future and there is a risk that it will restart its nuclear program. It looks likely that China will be the key in persuading North Korea to pursue a non-nuclear path. Concerning Africa, Obama and many of his advisors have strong views on humanitarian intervention and given the fact that many African countries are in a volatile situation, and what some people may believe is Obama’s responsibility to protect, especially on the African continent, given his ancestral roots, the use of force maybe more prevalent. At some point in his campaign Obama mentioned that one of his main concerns for was trying to stop what U.S. officials have termed genocide in Darfur, fighting poverty, and expanding prosperity. Also an immense consideration will be directed towards the tensions in Sudan, Somalia and eastern Congo. A number of analysts consider that by nominating Susan Rice, the former assistant secretary of state for African affairs, as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Obama showed that he would make the African continent the main priority of his administration. On January 13 2009, Hillary Clinton depicted the foreign policy objectives of the Obama administration in Africa as rooted in security, political, economic and humanitarian interests. She added that some of the Obama administration objectives would comprise combating al-Qaidas efforts to seek safe havens in failed states in the Horn of Africa; helping African nations to conserve their natural resources and reap fair benefits from them; stopping war in Congo; ending autocracy in Zimbabwe and human devastation in Darfur. On April 8, 2009 Richard Phillips, a captain of an American cargo ship, was taken hostage by Somali pirates, in a unsuccessful effort to take over the Maersk Alabama. A rescue mission was carried out at the order of President Obama and on April 12, 2009 he was rescued. A memorandum of understanding with Kenya was signed by President Obama in which it was stated that pirates captured of Kenya’s coast are to be tried in Kenyan courts. This choice was deeply criticized, due to the existing fear that it would endanger relations with the Somalia President, Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, on who, according to The New York Times, „the world is counting to tackle piracy and beat back the spread of militant Islam, two Somali problems that have flared into major geopolitical ones. Concerning Somalia there has been also talk that the US may supplement its arms consignment to Somalia from 40 tones to 80 tons, even as other reports show that part of these weapons may have ended into the hands of al-Shabab, the main opposition in Somalia. Due to globalization, China, Brazil and India along with a stronger European Union make it inevitable that the US no longer calls the shots alone in this new dispensation. Globalization requires more cooperation. Thus the concept of a single superpower world no longer fits. In Brazil, cooperation seems hard to achieve after the instatement of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which contained a Buy American clause. Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim informed President Obama that Brazil will contest U.S. economic protectionism, which has become a concern after the latest economic recession. Also in the Western Hemisphere there is the issue of Cuba. On the subject of Cuba, Barack Obama declared in 2008 that, if elected, he will base his policy on libertad, and that he will urge the implementation of democratic reforms and that he will negotiate with the Cuban government a possible release of political prisoners. After being elected Obama enjoyed a great support from president Raul Castro with his idea of closing the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, although both Raul Castro, and his brother Fidel advocate a more radical measure, that of shutting down the entire Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and giving back that territory to Cuba. In concern to the embargo over Cuba, Obama is still against lifting the embargo, in his view a valuable tool in convincing the Cuban government to accept any type of reform , even though the United States House of Representatives is trying to alleviate certain travel and cash transactions imposed against Cuba by the U.S. In the same region we have the problem of Honduras, whose president was arrested and exiled, actions reprimanded by Obama. This resulted in the suspension of economic and military aid to the Honduran government. Then there is Venezuela. Although Barack Obama showed to be conciliant with Venezuela the Venezuelan President Hugo Chvez made it rather clear that he does not consider that the new American administration will bring along any changes. He even used tactless remarks to show his disapproval towards the American President: Dont mess with me, Mr. Obama, advised Chvez, who has been president of Venezuela since 1999. Then he accused the US President of not being aware of the situation in Latin and of not knowing the â€Å"suffering† that the US and Europe caused to the state of Latin America. Obama responded: We have at times been disengaged, and at times we sought to dictate our terms, but I pledge to you that we seek an equal partnership. There is no senior partner and junior partner in our relations. In Europe the issues that arose relate, except for Russia, to Estonia, Switzerland, Kosovo, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. Estonia was and continues to be a small but vital ally of the United States in Afghanistan. President Ilves stated that while Estonia, like its allies, had experienced severe losses, they would make a huge effort and will not abandon the mission in Afghanistan. Regarding Kosovo, the United States is continuing its policy of recognition of the Republic of Kosovo under the Obama administration. The Obama administrations foreign policy toward Switzerland was characterized in a March 2009 editorial for The Guardian as increasingly hostile. Indeed, Obama always pressed for a clear out on tax havens , even as a senator Obama supporting the Stop Tax Havens Act of 2007, which acknowledged Switzerland as among 34 Offshore Secrecy Jurisdictions. In response the conservative Swiss Peoples Party proposed a number of disciplinary measures for Bern to inflict on the United States, including rejection of Guantnamo Bay prisoners and repatriation of Swiss gold from the U.S. On February 28, 2009, Swiss President Hans-Rudolf Merz suggested that Switzerland might need to make a few concessions on matters of bank secrecy in light of the financial crisis in order to avoid being sanctioned as an uncooperative tax haven. Former United States Ambassador to Switzerland Faith Whittlesey advised the Obama administration against taking too hostile an attitude with a government she characterized as stable, responsible[and] reliable, warning that a decline of relations with Switzerland could lead to greater economic chaos. Later the Obama Administration expressed their willingness to negotiate with Switzerland†. The Obama administration achieved a diplomatic victory when Switzerland stated that it would adjust its policy to OECD standards and from this time forth cooperate with foreign bodies on matters of international tax evasion. The United States assured the government of Ukraine that it would continue to support Ukraine’s bid to join NATO despite Russia’s objections, and that the reconstruction of US – Russia relations will not come at Ukraine’s expense and once again rejected the idea of a Russian sphere of influence: We must apply state sovereignty to all nations and that includes nations like Georgia and Ukraine. In London, questions came up concerning Obamas goals as regards to the future of the special relationship between the U.S. and its past colonial administrator. Some believe that Obama will approach relations with the U.K. in a more businesslike, less personal way. Nevertheless, on March 1, 2009, Brown addressed the topic of joint Anglo-American leadership to combat the recession in a column for The Sunday Times. He declared that he and Obama would talk about a global new deal that would support integrated action by different national governments to drive away the effects of the economic crisis, as well as international collaboration to establish the reform of challenging industries, such as financial corporations. Ties with Turkey were strained under the George W. Bush administration, in part due to Turkish military operations into northern Iraq in 2008. Visits were made by Obama’s staff and Obama himself in an attempt to restore the strategic partnership between the United States and Turkey. He said Turkeys accession to the European Union would send an important signal to the Muslim world and firmly anchor the country in Europe. The trip celebrated Obamas foremost visit to a Muslim majority country. Obama has emphasized that a secure rapport with a stable, democratic, Western-oriented Republic of Turkey is a vital U.S. national concern. His administration stated that the U.S. will sustain the encouragement of democracy, human rights, and freedom of expression in Turkey and sustain its efforts to join the European Union, which the president confirmed on his April visit. In the beginning, we mentioned that Obama considered himself to be a pragmatic. He also presents himself as an idealist and therefore would agree with an element of Bush’s foreign policy – freedom’s universal appeal, though he would differ when it comes to the use of force abroad to bring about freedom. The means employed to achieve the ends of US foreign policy is where Obama and his democratic administration differ from that of Bush. While Bush’s methods depended more on a one-sided use of force which was more state-centric, Obama prefers a joint tactic with a stress on non-state actors and non-traditional security threats. Obama believes that America is stronger and is more respected when it works with its allies and institutions in order to protect American power. The international system is looked through the lens of globalization rather than a contest between states. States need to work together to discover incorporated and joint answers to the different international threats every state faces: â€Å"dangers that cannot be contained within the borders of a country or by the distance of an ocean.† Even though the management of the US military and its use of force will be the central element to the success of any of the foreign policy challenges facing the new Obama administration, Obama wants to increase the number of US military personnel and increase their ability to fight insurgencies and advise foreign forces. In other words, he wants to increase the role of the non-conventional way of war. In his Foreign Affairs article Obama affirmed that, â€Å"The Bush administration responded to the unconventional attacks of 9/11 with conventional thinking of the past, largely viewing problems as state-based and principally amenable to military solutions.† However, military solutions to these problem states have proven not to be the case in the post-Cold War world. Obama has shown a tendency to shift the focus of American foreign policy away from its traditional reliance on the use of force, to more of a strengthening of non-military elements of state-craft such as diplomac y and state-building. In his New Strategy for a New World he said, â€Å"Instead of pushing the entire burden of our foreign policy on to the brave men and women of our military, I want to use all elements of American power to keep us safe, and prosperous, and free†¦ I will pursue a tough, smart and principled national security strategy, one that recognizes that we have interests not only in Baghdad, but in Kandahar, and Karachi, in Tokyo and London, in Beijing and Berlin.† Although the main reason of his election is the message of change which he transmitted, President Barack Obama, and also his staff, declared that not every decision made in the past will be repudiated. Given Obama’s message of change and the fact that he has presented himself as a pragmatist, focusing on diplomacy and partnership, many may be surprised about his style of foreign policy in the fact that it may not produce the dramatic shifts that they anticipate. The US has to consider its geo-political position and will not want to make any rash changes in its foreign policy which may be seen by friend or foe as a sign of weakness. Furthermore, it must also be noted that during Bush’s second term there was a move away from the unilateralist state-centric approach that dominated his first term in office, to more multilateralism with a focus on diplomacy in the style that Obama has advocated. In January 2006 US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice introduced a document known as Transformational Diplomacy which set out how US foreign policy will be conducted in the final years of the Bush administration. There was a greater emphasis on diplomacy and working closely with alliances. Rice portrayed it as, â€Å"working with our many partners around the world†¦ and building and sustaining democratic, well-governed states that will respond to the needs of their people and conduct themselves responsibly in the international system.† Moreover, we only have to look at the examples of the change in Bush’s second term term; the deal with North Korea to contain its nuclear arms development, the acceptance of the idea of a timetable for Iraqi withdrawal, contemplating diplomacy with Iran, and talks with some elements of the Taliban in Afghanistan. Unfortunately for Bush his 8 years in office will be remembered for the foreign policy of his first 4 years – the Bush doctrine of preventive war. The changes in foreign policy in his second term have been rather overlooked by the vast majority of people. However, Obama is the one who emphasized during his campaign the importance of diplomacy. Like Secretary of State Clinton declared: We must use what has been called smart power, the full range of tools at our disposal - diplomatic, economic, military, political, legal and cultural - picking the right tool or combination of tools for each situation. With smart power, diplomacy will be the vanguard of our foreign policy. We will conclude with one of the best and to the point descriptions of what Washington Post columnist E.J. Dionne describes as â€Å"The Obama Doctrine†, and that is a form of realism unafraid to deploy American power but mindful that its use must be tempered by practical limits and a dose of self-awareness. Bibliography: 1. http://allafrica.com 2. http://blogs.wsj.com 3. http://finance.yahoo.com 4. http://inthesenewtimes.com 5. http://levin.senate.gov 6. http://news.bbc.co.uk 7. http://uk.reuters.com 8. alertnet.org 9. allheadlinenews.com 10. america.gov 11. barackobama.com 12. breitbart.com 13. cfr.org 14. cnn.com 15. dailytimes.com.pk 16. foreignaffairs.org 17. foreignpolicy.com 18. foxbusiness.com 19. ft.com 20. guardian.co.uk 21. haaretz.com 22. huffingtonpost.com 23. hurriyet.com.tr 24. iht.com 25. latimes.com 26. my.barackobama.com 27. newstoday.co.za 28. nytimes.com 29. poligazette.com 30. politico.com 31. reuters.com 32. rferl.org 33. state.gov 34. swissinfo.ch 35. telegraph.co.uk 36. telegraph.co.uk 37. themoscowtimes.com 38. timesonline.co.uk 39. usatoday.com 40. voanews.com 41. washingtonpost.com 42. whitehouse.gov Research Papers on Foreign Policy of the Obama AdministrationAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Hip-Hop is ArtPETSTEL analysis of IndiaTwilight of the UAWDefinition of Export QuotasQuebec and CanadaOpen Architechture a white paper19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andBringing Democracy to Africa

Human Biology Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Biology - Coursework Example When it comes to the number of chromosomes, the number of nucleus is still the same in mitosis but meiosis contains a haploid number of chromosomes. There is also no exchange of DNA between chromosomes in mitosis while in meiosis, there is at least one cross-over. Transcription is simply a process where genetic information from DNA is transcribed into RNA.This process is important especially when producing proteins.DNA proteins cannot be directly changed into proteins that is why translation to RNA is important. Darwin popularized the theory of evolution and process of natural selection where only the fittest specie would survive. Some animals have evolved and changed their physical features in order to survive the environment. Lamarck on the other hand is known for the Theory of Inherited Characteristics. He said that the off springs of animals would be the one to manifest adaptation to the environment as passed to them by their parents. There are four critical elements namely: variation, inheritance, High rate of population growth, and differential survival and reproduction. A fine example would be the some bacteria increasing resistance to drugs in order to survive. In Eukaryota we have mushrooms and other fungi. Eubacteria includes streptococci which cause strep throat infections and other disease causing bacteria. Helpful bacteria like yogurt is also an example. Archae are only found in environments where there are no oxygen present. There are several traits of primates that makes them different, namely : they feed their young with milk, give birth to live babies, warm-blooded, color vision and have a complicated social organization. Ecology is the discipline that deals with studying the relationships of organisms to one another as well as their surroundings. Ecosystem is the biological environment that contains all the living organisms. Example of an ecological set-up is a lake where fishes and other living things

Praxis of Pastoral Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Praxis of Pastoral Counseling - Essay Example As the essay outlines  since individuals today are faced with major problems concerning their social status, it could not be avoided that most issues that are presented to the counselors are involved with the inability of the individuals to gain the things that they ought to gain from the society. Aside from this, the fact that the thoughts of human philosophy are not in full accordance with the principles of the Bible, Christian Counseling faces so much issues as to how it is considered effective by individuals who are expecting counseling assistance.  This paper discusses that the crisis in counseling procedures especially that of the Christian-based procedure of counseling is mainly focused on the practicality and the effectiveness of the said process of counseling. The fact that Christian Counseling is based upon the principles of the Holy Scriptures, and that not so many people believe in the power of the Bible nowadays, questions the power of the word of God to actually aid e individuals with their personal issues and thus be able to solve the said problems in a  Ã‚   more practical and effective procedure. However, through the effective application of the principles of the Bible in actual counseling procedures, these questions could be answered and thus prove the fact that the counsel from God’s word is indeed effective and useful for every believer of the truth.  Counselors are expected to have a special concern on how others are feeling. The emotional display of the situation that they are currently dealing with should be immediately noticed by the counselors. This ability is not at all innate.... g is to have faith that these particular guidance assistances could lead to the betterment of the situations that each individual deals with at present. While God is not at this time performing such direct miracles, Christians today find that if they 'do not waver in a lack of faith,' they, too, can enjoy success when they apply God's direction. Said Jesus: "All things can be to one if one has faith."(Mark 9:23) Since individuals today are faced with major problems concerning their social status, it could not be avoided that most issues that are presented to the counselors are involved with the inability of the individuals to gain the things that they ought to gain from the society (Culbertson, 2000, 10). Aside from this, the fact that the thoughts of human philosophy are not in full accordance with the principles of the Bible, Christian Counseling faces so much issues as to how it is considered effective by individuals who are expecting counseling assistance. (Culbertson, 2000, 262) The crisis in counseling procedures especially that of the Christian-based procedure of counseling is mainly focused on the practicality and the effectiveness of the said process of counseling. The fact that Christian Counseling is based upon the principles of the Holy Scriptures, and that not so many people believe in the power of the Bible nowadays, questions the power of the word of God to actually aide individuals with their personal issues and thus be able to solve the said problems in a more practical and effective procedure. However, through the effective application of the principles of the Bible in actual counseling procedures, these questions could be answered and thus prove the fact that the counsel from God's word is indeed effective and useful for every believer of the

Social Policy Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social Policy Bachelor - Essay Example However 'secondary education for all' did come about after a fashion under the 1944 Act. Education in Britain as changed greatly since World War II, mainly due to the 1944 Education Act, which made secondary education free and compulsory until the age of 15 years. The views taken of education and its importance in national, economic and political terms have varied a great deal since then with each new government: there have been many good intentions but too few initiatives taken to achieve the ideal system. Unfortunately this means that, unless you are white, male, middle class and non-handicapped, the institution of the school may not be very helpful to your development, and your days at school may be remembered as a time of prejudice, frustration and lost opportunities. The immediate post-war period in Britain constituted a new way of thinking about public and private life. There were many promises heralding a better life for everyone, including the provision of free, compulsory secondary education: public education came to be seen as a 'bastion of national recovery' ( Gosden, 1983). Three types of school were suggested: grammar, technical and secondary modern with grammar schools continuing to be seen as superior and biased towards middle-class boys. The 1959 Crowther Report recommended raising the school leaving age to 16 years, the introduction of comprehensive school and a new exam below GCE level -- however, these moves towards equal opportunities were not completed until the 1970s. Similarly, the 1983 Newsom Report argued that pupils of below average ability should receive a greater share of resources, and recommended improved teacher training. From the 1960s onwards, education was seen more and more in the context of economics an instrument of national interest rather than personal fulfilment. Education became more and more under central (and parental) control in the 1980s -- the 1980 Education Act made it no longer the duty of LEAs to provide free school meals, and introduced parental scrutiny and choice. The second half the 1980s saw a restructuring, and the unashamed acknowledgement that the market was the new cornerstone of education Key aims were now to keep output constant and affordable, to remove LEAs as a source of education policy making, and to replace effectiveness with efficiency. The 1988 Education Act is a set of 'compromises and interventions' (Ball, 1990): it sets out the National Curriculum (fine in principle, but unfair in practice), more power to school governers, and the possibility of 'opting out' of LEA control by individual schools. Another area in which young people are not given the chance to fully develop their potential is that of Special Educational Needs (SEN), defined by the 1988 Education Act as a 'learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made'. Judiciary system The development of education policy in Britain includes concept of 'educational disadvantage' since the 1950s, the comprehensive reorganization of secondary education in the 1960s and 1970s, the change in ideas on education in the 1980s and 1990s, and New Labour's policies. Political ideologies have shaped social policy of United Kingdom since 1945. The political party system, dating from the 17th century, is an essential element in the working constitution. Several parties win seats in

Compensation and benifets Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compensation and benifets - Research Paper Example The human resource system of the organization is decentralized and is trying to serve its employees as much as possible in a variety of locations. Service delivery ascribed to the human resource is highly dismantled, and is driven by a small team in charge of human resource operations. In spite of the hard work and effort put in by team members to afford the company support, they lack the requisite training, tools of human resource needed for success, as well as critical mass. The key challenge that the benefits and compensations program experiences is significant errors in data and inconsistencies in the responses of inquiries by employees. The decentralized human resource system used by the company allocates most of the human resource very little time to support their business associates. The high score of mistakes in data entry makes it difficult for the firm to provide accurate and timely information to key stakeholders. A Review of a Firm Experiencing a Similar Challenge Quite g ood example of a firm that faced a challenge similar to that of Boehringer Ingelheim is Hong Kong Polytechnic University, specifically its Department of Management. The university chose to implement information systems of managing the human resource with an aim of lowering the number of errors linked to data entry. Human Resource Information Systems refer to software applications that play the serve the specific purpose of aggregating and synthesizing information about employees. The information systems can serve purposes that range from populating breakdowns of payroll and benefits, to illustrating present positions held by employees, through the applications that run the system. The university discovered that the executives within the human resource were more comfortable carrying out the critical and creative projects because data about the employees were arranged neatly within the databases of human resource information systems. It was emergent that data automation minimized the probability of data entry errors. Moreover, more complex and integrated analyses were possible through the implementation of an extensive and unified pool of information about employees. In general, Hong Kong University together with many other manufacturing firms based in Hong Kong discovered the effectiveness of human resource information systems in improving the performance of business operations dovetailing a variety of human resource processes, and transforming thee management process of an organization with regard to compensations and benefits. Research and Analysis Contemporarily, human resource information systems connote fully automated systems that comprise of payroll processing, a system of human resource information and the management of recruitment (Pynes, 2008). Because there is a need to integrate data across the various departments of an organization, it is important to incorporate transparency and integrity in order to augment productivity and consequently meet the specific requirements of compensation and benefits legislation. Updating or entering of data win the human resource information system is conducted in within a single database. Consequently, all departments make use of these data. As such, this reduces errors, eliminating the presence of different records and saving both time and money. Errors in data

Why are Relationships Difficult - English composition Essay

Why are Relationships Difficult - English composition - Essay Example It was argued that men and women are different biologically (or naturally), and it is inherent in them, so to speak, to be different from one another, therefore, it is all but natural for their relationships with each other to have so many problems and/or difficulties. However, with the women liberation movement came the idea that it was not biology but social conditioning that caused men and women to behave and think so differently in any given scenario Now the question arises: which of these theories is valid? Are men and women really different from one another because society demands them to be so, or is it because the differences in them are a manifestation of their in-built differences? Many studies have been conducted in this regard by the scientific community, with the result that, indeed, men and women are geared differently naturally (both mentally and physically, of course) as well as through social conditioning. There is much that has already been said about the role of society in setting certain molds for the sexes, and then expecting men and women to fall in line. Such molds are often quite sexist and detrimental to understanding and mutual respect amongst the sexes. Although the media has perpetuated sexist attitudes, with the woman being only a comforter of man, whether as a wife or mistress, it would be unfair to lay the blame on them, as it is society itself that is reflected through the media. It would be wrong for the society to blame the media for projecting ideas that the society itself holds. However, the social conditioning only fosters the human brain which is geared to be masculine or feminine from the birth of a child. There are quite a number of differences between the brains of the two sexes which causes them to develop differently at first and then later on to behave differently. These differences, scientists argue, were the result of evolution and the different roles these two sexes had to perform.

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethics - Essay Example This is particularly true when it comes to fellow professionals or protecting the reputation of our particular field. While â€Å"whistleblowers† are praised for their courage and integrity, the personal cost of â€Å"doing the right thing† can mean death to a career. Such behavior can also seriously affect the career of fellow professionals. A good example of the problems involved in balancing ones duty to fellow professionals and doing the right thing when one sees something wrong is clearly laid out by Michael Davis in Thinking Like an Engineer: Studies in the Ethics of a Profession. Davis outlines events leading up to the now infamous Challenger disaster brought on by certain engineering decisions regarding the questionable safety of ORings (4 Codes and Ethics of the Challenger, p 43-44). In reading the account the â€Å"blame† seems to fall upon one man, Robert Lund, vice president of engineering at Morton Thiokol, manufacturer of faulty ORings which were blamed for the tragedy. A team of engineers had recommended the flight be scraped, but Lund, with pressure from various people at the Space Center, was persuaded to allow the project to go forward. Space Center officials were â€Å"appalled at the evidence on which the no-launch recommendation was based.† (p44). Lund was in a professional bind. Should he take the advice of fellow engineers at Thiokol, or go with the recommendation of officials at the Space Center most of them engineers, to go forward. There was a lot of money at stake for Thiokol, and Lund knew it. The reputations of engineers were also at stake. He had to choose between duty to fellow professionals and pressure from outsiders to â€Å"think like a manager.† (p44) He chose the latter to disastrous results. It is easy as a professional to judge Lund’s decision in hindsight. Should he have blown the whistle then? Did he even think it necessary?

Compensation and benifets Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compensation and benifets - Research Paper Example The human resource system of the organization is decentralized and is trying to serve its employees as much as possible in a variety of locations. Service delivery ascribed to the human resource is highly dismantled, and is driven by a small team in charge of human resource operations. In spite of the hard work and effort put in by team members to afford the company support, they lack the requisite training, tools of human resource needed for success, as well as critical mass. The key challenge that the benefits and compensations program experiences is significant errors in data and inconsistencies in the responses of inquiries by employees. The decentralized human resource system used by the company allocates most of the human resource very little time to support their business associates. The high score of mistakes in data entry makes it difficult for the firm to provide accurate and timely information to key stakeholders. A Review of a Firm Experiencing a Similar Challenge Quite g ood example of a firm that faced a challenge similar to that of Boehringer Ingelheim is Hong Kong Polytechnic University, specifically its Department of Management. The university chose to implement information systems of managing the human resource with an aim of lowering the number of errors linked to data entry. Human Resource Information Systems refer to software applications that play the serve the specific purpose of aggregating and synthesizing information about employees. The information systems can serve purposes that range from populating breakdowns of payroll and benefits, to illustrating present positions held by employees, through the applications that run the system. The university discovered that the executives within the human resource were more comfortable carrying out the critical and creative projects because data about the employees were arranged neatly within the databases of human resource information systems. It was emergent that data automation minimized the probability of data entry errors. Moreover, more complex and integrated analyses were possible through the implementation of an extensive and unified pool of information about employees. In general, Hong Kong University together with many other manufacturing firms based in Hong Kong discovered the effectiveness of human resource information systems in improving the performance of business operations dovetailing a variety of human resource processes, and transforming thee management process of an organization with regard to compensations and benefits. Research and Analysis Contemporarily, human resource information systems connote fully automated systems that comprise of payroll processing, a system of human resource information and the management of recruitment (Pynes, 2008). Because there is a need to integrate data across the various departments of an organization, it is important to incorporate transparency and integrity in order to augment productivity and consequently meet the specific requirements of compensation and benefits legislation. Updating or entering of data win the human resource information system is conducted in within a single database. Consequently, all departments make use of these data. As such, this reduces errors, eliminating the presence of different records and saving both time and money. Errors in data

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethics - Essay Example This is particularly true when it comes to fellow professionals or protecting the reputation of our particular field. While â€Å"whistleblowers† are praised for their courage and integrity, the personal cost of â€Å"doing the right thing† can mean death to a career. Such behavior can also seriously affect the career of fellow professionals. A good example of the problems involved in balancing ones duty to fellow professionals and doing the right thing when one sees something wrong is clearly laid out by Michael Davis in Thinking Like an Engineer: Studies in the Ethics of a Profession. Davis outlines events leading up to the now infamous Challenger disaster brought on by certain engineering decisions regarding the questionable safety of ORings (4 Codes and Ethics of the Challenger, p 43-44). In reading the account the â€Å"blame† seems to fall upon one man, Robert Lund, vice president of engineering at Morton Thiokol, manufacturer of faulty ORings which were blamed for the tragedy. A team of engineers had recommended the flight be scraped, but Lund, with pressure from various people at the Space Center, was persuaded to allow the project to go forward. Space Center officials were â€Å"appalled at the evidence on which the no-launch recommendation was based.† (p44). Lund was in a professional bind. Should he take the advice of fellow engineers at Thiokol, or go with the recommendation of officials at the Space Center most of them engineers, to go forward. There was a lot of money at stake for Thiokol, and Lund knew it. The reputations of engineers were also at stake. He had to choose between duty to fellow professionals and pressure from outsiders to â€Å"think like a manager.† (p44) He chose the latter to disastrous results. It is easy as a professional to judge Lund’s decision in hindsight. Should he have blown the whistle then? Did he even think it necessary?

Fruit Wine Making Essay Example for Free

Fruit Wine Making Essay Grape is not the only fruit which we can make good-quality wine. Natives fruits such as cashew (kasoy), duhat, pineapple, guava, banana and bignay can be also processed into good wine. Other less familiar, yet excellent sources of wine are lipote, balubat and katuria. The lipote resembles the duhat, except for its round shape and black skin. Its white flesh become sweet when ripe and it also known as duhat matsing. Another native fruit, the balubat, is like siniguelas, green when unripe and reddish-orange when mature. It has white flesh with seeds like that of prunes and taste very sour even when ripe. The katurai is similar to the tiessa, green when unripe and yellow when ripe. Its flesh is yellow and sour with seeds like those of nangka. It is also have plenty of latex, a sticky juice. Preparation. The fruits should be sweet enough; otherwise, add cane sugar to the ingredients. Make sure the fruits are ripe and free from bruises and diseases. Wash the fruit very well and peel if necessary. Crush or mash to extract the juice. Use a fruit press or crush by hand and then strain the juice through a strong piece of cheesecloth. Add water twice the a month of the extracted juice, then add sugar if necessary. Pasteurization. Pasteurize the juice using the double boiler. This may consist of a kettle that can be placed within a much bigger kettle containing water. Prepare cheesecloth or any filter cloth, a spoon and a container for the pasteurized juice. Clean and sterilize all these boiling water before using. Filter the juice into the small boiler and place inside the bigger boiler. Put water in the bigger one up to the level of the juice. Heat the set-up at 63 degree Celsius for 30 minutes, or at 72 degree Celsius for 15 seconds. Gently stir while heating. afterwards, cool the juice immediately by exposing the container to cold running water. Stir the juice continuously, until sufficient cool. Add a pinch of baker’s yeast or commercial yeast preparation which is commonly sold in the grocery stores. Aging the wine. In a glass or enameled container, place the mixture and then cover with piece of cloth. after about 48 hours, transfer to a wooden barrel (preferably oak) or a demijohn (garapon). Plug holes with cotton and keep the barrel or container undisturbed in a darkquite place for about three months. After this period, heat the wine in a steam bath to a temperature of 50 degrees to 60 degree Celsius. Do this by exposing the container to steam. Add well-beaten eggwhite, about five cubic centimeters (cc) of eggwhite for every one liter of wine, stir and then cool. Filter the mixture and throw out the residue. Afterwards, heat the wine at 80 degree Celsius for 20 minutes. Make sure that the aged wine looks clear before putting in clean, sterilized bottles. Use a siphon to transfer the wine.

Implementation Of Harm Reduction Strategies Criminology Essay

Implementation Of Harm Reduction Strategies Criminology Essay The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) identifies five categories for illicit drugs: narcotics, stimulants, depressants (sedatives), hallucinogens, and cannabis. These categories include many drugs legally produced and prescribed by doctors as well as those illegally produced and sold outside of medical channels (CIA World Fact Book, 2012). In the United Kingdom, the term illicit drugs is used to describe those drugs that are controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Globally, the illicit drugs trade (also referred to as the illegal drugs trade or drug trafficking) is one of the largest businesses and some 210 million people use illicit drugs each year, and almost 200,000 deaths can be attributed as a direct result of these drugs (UNODC, 2011). Illicit drugs are a substantial threat to the public good, not only because they adversely affect public health, but also because they can generate crime, disorder, family breakdown, and community decay (Strang et al., 2012). } Proportion of 16 to 59 year olds reporting use of any drug by age group and sex in the last year, 2010/11 BCS CHAPTER 2 EPIDEMIOLOGY AND REIVEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1 Epidemiology of illicit drug use Drug misuse is a global social problem and, along with poverty and infectious disease, is one of the most challenging issues for personal and community health in many parts of the world (Donmall, 2001).The task of drug abuse epidemiology is to better understand patterns and trends in drug use, such as the characteristics of persons abusing drugs and how this may change over time. Drug abuse epidemiology is one of the more challenging areas of epidemiology. One of the basic reasons for this is the nature of substance use and the circumstances around it- the illegal nature of most drug abuse means that it remains hidden from view to some extent, and thus difficult to quantify (Donmall, 2001, WHO, 2000). Since the 1980s there have been major changes in trends and patterns of drug use including: global increases in the production and use of drugs; new forms of old drugs (eg. smokeable crack cocaine); changes in way drugs are taken (eg. transitions from opium smoking to heroin injection); and the introduction and proliferation of new drugs (eg. MDMA ecstasy and other amphetamine-type stimulants)(WHO, 2000). Drug use behaviours range from occasional, sporadic or experimental use, through regular low risk recreational use, to high risk, daily dependence that is often associated with a variety of financial, health and social problems (Donmall, 2001). However not all drug use is equally harmful, just as not all drugs have the same negative effects. This creates another challenge for drug abuse epidemiology- not all behaviours or substances pose the same risk. However, it has been recognised that drug injection is of specific importance as it has become a major transmission route for HIV (WHO, 2000). 2.2 Illicit drugs In the United Kingdom, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, with amendments, is the main law regulating drug control UK. It divides controlled substances into 3 Classes (A, B, C) based on harm, with Class A being the most harmful. An overview of the main drugs are found in table 1, along with their classification. Table 1: Drug classification Source: Home Office 2011 The detailed information on the different drugs found below is derived from the following sources: World Health Organisations Guide to Drug Abuse Epidemiology (2000), DrugScope (2012) and the Talk to Frank Home Office initiative (2012) to provide accurate and reliable information on drugs for young people (WHO, 2000, DrugScope, 2012, FRANK, 2012). Cocaine Cocaine and its derivative crack cocaine provide an example of both the globalization of substance use and the cyclical nature of drug epidemics. Traditionally coca leaves have been chewed by people in the Andean countries of South America for thousands of years. The main alkaloid of the coca leave, cocaine, was isolated relatively recently in about 1860. Cocaine was then used in patent medicines, beverages and tonics in developed countries in Europe, North America and in Australia until the early 1900s. Laws restricting the availability of cocaine saw a decrease in consumption in these countries until the 1960s. From that time cocaine use became popular among certain groups of young people in some developed countries and in the producer countries of South America. Cocaine became widely available in North America in the 1970s and Europe in the 1980s (WHO, 2000). Ecstasy Ecstasy is an illegally manufactured drug that usually comes in tablet or capsule form. The chemical name of pure ecstasy is 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (DrugScope, 2012). Ecstasy is a stimulant drug which also has mild hallucinogenic effects. It has been described as being like a mix of amphetamine and a weak form of LSD. The effects of taking a moderate dose start after 20-60 minutes (longer if on a full stomach) and can last for up to several hours. Ecstasy was first made by two German chemists in 1912 and patented in 1914, in case it turned out to be a useful drug. It didnt. During the 1950s, the American military experimented with a whole range of drugs, including ecstasy, for use in chemical warfare, to extract information from prisoners and to immobilise armies. In the 1960s, the drug was rediscovered by an American research chemist Alexander Shulgin who experimented with it on himself (DrugScope, 2012). LSD Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is an hallucinogenic drug that is derived originally from ergot, a fungus found growing wild on rye and other grasses. It is a white powder, but as a street drug, it is a liquid either on its own or absorbed into paper sheets. The sheets are cut into tiny squares like postage stamps or transfers and often have pictures or designs on. LSD is also sometimes dropped on to sugar cubes or formed into tablets or small capsules (DrugScope, 2012). Magic Mushrooms Psilocin-based magic mushrooms (PBMMs) in prepared forms (e.g. dried or extracted) have been illegal in the UK since the 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act. But fresh or unprepared PBMMs were legal to possess and traffic until the 2005 Drugs Act, UK (Riley, 2010). Meth Methamphetamine (crystal meth) is a central nervous system stimulant with a high potential for misuse and dependence. A synthetic drug, it is closely related chemically to amphetamine (speed) but produces greater effects on the central nervous system. Cannabis Cannabis is a Class B drug derived from the cannabis plant, a bushy plant found wild in most parts of the world and easily cultivated in Britain. There are three varieties of the plant, Cannabis sativa, indica and ruderalis. In Western countries it is generally used as a relaxant and mild intoxicant. In the UK, cannabis is generally smoked with tobacco in a joint or spliff, but can also be smoked in a pipe, brewed into a drink or cooked into food (DrugScope, 2012). Poppers Poppers are usually found in the form of a liquid chemical (a nitrite) sold in a small bottle. Commonly, the chemical is alkyl nitrite. Other nitrites like amyl nitrite (and butyl nitrite and isobutyl nitrite) have also used been used. Nitrites dilate the blood vessels and allow more blood to get to the heart ((FRANK, 2012). Heroin Heroin use has become increasingly common in North-America and Europe since the 1960s. Increases in heroin use are often cyclical in these countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, there was a well reported heroin epidemic in the mid-1980s, following a period in the 1970s when the heroin using population was generally stable and ageing (Power, 1994). The UK epidemic in the 1980s was in part the result of the availability of cheap, high purity heroin from South-west Asia notably Pakistan. This form of heroin could be smoked and became attractive to young non-injecting users (Pearson, 1987).(WHO, 2000) Since heroin is commonly used by injecting, the health risks including that of HIV and hepatitis transmission are substantial. A number of drugs used commonly for their therapeutic efficacy in health care are also being abused all over the world. These include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, other sedatives and some stimulant drugs .The epidemiology of this use is difficult to study, because of difficulties in distinguishing medical and non-medical use (WHO, 2000). 2.3 Data on Drug users United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, primary sources of information about prevalence of illegal drugs among the adult population are derived from representative household surveys. In England and Wales, the British Crime Survey (BCS) has been a continuous survey since 2002 (EMCDDA, 2012). The BCS collects a rich set of information on the personal, household, area characteristics and lifestyle factors of respondents that can be used to explore differences in drug use. This information, together with other information from representative surveys feeds into the latest report on the statistics of drug misuse in England and Wales (NHS Information Centre, 2011). The following data is extracted from the 2011 report Statistics on Drug Misuse: England published by the NHS Information Centre and the 2011 Home Office report on Drug misuse in England and Wales (Home Office, 2011, NHS Information Centre, 2011). According to this report, the prevalence of ever having taken illicit drugs in England and Wales has increased from 30.5% in 1996 to 36.3% in 2010/11. As can be seen in figure 1 in 2010/2011, 12 per cent of men, versus 5.7 per cent of women reported using any type of drug in the last year. There is a clear downward trend in any drug use in the past year as age increases for all adults. Specifically for Class A drugs, there is a slight increase in use for the 20-24 age group, after which use decreases with age as well. Figure 1: Proportion of adults reporting use of the most prevalent drugs in the last year, by age, 2010/11 BCSBCR home office drugs.PNG Source: Home Office 2011 A total of 8.8 per cent of adults had used one or more illicit drug within the last year (figure 1), compared with 8.6 per cent in 2009/10, which indicates a slight increase in any drug use for adults in the past year. However, as can be seen in figure 2, there has been a general downward trend in the use of any drug in the past decade, whereas there has been little change in the percentage of any Class A drugs used by adults in this same time period. Figure 2: Proportion of 16 to 59 year olds reporting use of any illicit drug or any Class A drug in the last year, 1996 to 2010/11 BCS Source: Home Office 2011 drugs 2.PNG The prevalence of young adults (16-24 years) ever having taken drugs has decreased from 48.6 per cent in 1996 to 40.1 per cent in 2010/11. Findings from the 2009/10 BCS suggest that falls in illicit drug use have occurred in the youngest age groups (16-29 year olds), where use is highest. For example, around one in three (31.6%) of 16-19 year olds used an illicit drug in the last year in 1996 compared with around one in five (22.3%) in 2009/10. Figure 3: Proportion of adults reporting use of the most prevalent drugs in the last year, by age, 2010/11 BCS As can be seen in figure 3, in 2010/11 cannabis is the type of drug most likely to be used by adults (6.8%) followed by powder cocaine (2.1%), which is consistent with findings from previous years. Similarly, for young adults (16-24 years) cannabis is the most prevalent drug followed by powder cocaine and ecstasy. The 2010/11 BCS reported that single adults had higher levels of any (18.1%) or Class A (6.5%) drug use in comparison with all other marital groups (for example, 2.7% and 0.6% were the equivalent figures for married adults). In addition, adults from a White ethnic group had higher levels of any (9.4%) or Class A (3.2%) drug use than those from a non-White background (that is, ethnic groups other than White; 5.1%, any drug use; 1.0% Class A). Adults living in a household in the lowest income group ( £10,000 or less) had the highest levels of any drug use (12.9%) compared with all other income groups (e.g. 7.7% of adults living in a household with an income of  £50,000). In addition, a clear urban-rural disparity exists, with 9.3 per cent of adults in urban areas had taken any illicit drug in the last year compared with 7.0 per cent of those in rural areas. This was the case for both Class A drug use as well as any other drug use among adults (Home Office, 2011). Similar to the data collected by the British Crime Survey , the NHS also collects data on smoking, drinking and drug use among secondary school pupils aged 11 to 15(NHS, 2011). Overall, this report shows that drug use has declined since 2001. In 2010, 18 per cent of pupils said they had ever dused drugs, 12 per cent had taken any drugs in the last year and 7 per cent had taken drugs in the last month (compared to 29 %, 20 % and 12% respectively in 2001). This decreasing trend can be seen in figure 4. Girls were less likely than boys to have taken drugs in the last year (odds ratio= 0.74), the odds of having taken drugs in the last year also increased with age (odds ratio=1.13 for each additional year) (NHS, 2011). In terms of ethnicity, pupils of Asian ethnicity were more likely to have taken drugs in the last year than white pupils (odds ratio= 1.13). As is not unexpected, both smoking and drinking alcohol were associated with drug use in the last year. When looking at the type of drugs used, cannabis is the most prevalent- 8.2 per cent of pupils reported taking it in the last year. This compares with 8.9 per cent in 2009 and continues the decline seen since 2001. As can be seen in figure 5, 3.8 per cent of pupils reported sniffing collative substances such as glue, gas, aerosols etc, which shows a decrease from 5.5 per cent in 2009. Sniffing poppers has fallen from a high in 2007 to 1.5 per cent in 2010 (NHS, 2011). Figure 4 Source: NHS 2011 Figure 5 Source: NHS 2011 A team of researchers recently found higher than expected rates of HIV and hepatitis C infection in a study in London. They suggested that this was due to high risk injecting practices, associated with newer injectors and the injection of crack (Judd et al. 2005).4 They found higher rates of hepatitis C in their sample than in many other cities internationally (Hope et al. 2001). 2.4 Country comparison Compared to Scotland, data from 2010/11 show that illicit drug use ever among 16-59 year olds was lower in Scotland (33.5%) than in England and Wales (36.4%). Whereas the percentage taking any illicit drug in Scotland in the last year (9.8%) or last month (5.8%) was higher than across England and Wales (8.6% in the last year and 5.0% in the last month.) Another barrier to the accuracy of survey estimates is that household and school surveys are likely to miss those people who are amongst the heaviest users of illicit drugs: the homeless, prisoners and school truants. Dependent users of cocaine and heroin may also be of unstable residence, and less likely to be found in their residence at a given time (reuter). 2.3 What is harm reduction Three separate facets of physical harm can be identifi ed. First, acute physical harm-ie, the immediate eff ects (eg, respiratory depression with opioids, acute cardiac crises with cocaine, and fatal poisonings). Second, chronic physical harm-ie, the health consequences of repeated use (eg, psychosis with stimulants, possible lung disease with cannabis). Finally, there are specifi c problems associated with intravenous drug use.(Nutt et al., 2007) Harm reduction refers to policies and programmes that aim to reduce the harms associated with the use of drugs (Power, 1994). One widely-cited conception of harm reduction distinguishes harm at different levels individual, community and societal and of different types health, social and economic (Donmall, 2001). These distinctions give a good indication of the breadth of focus and concern within harm reduction. As such, harm reduction should not be considered as a service type, or something delivered within a single tier, but should be subject to a whole system approach to reduce or eliminate the harms associated with drug use (NHS, 2009/10). Health related harm resulting from the use and abuse of drugs vary. This is dependent on the type of substance being used, its frequency, its dosage and circumstances of use (Department of Health and National Treatment Agency, 2011b, Department of Health and National Treatment Agency, 2011a). There is a wide-ranging group of health related harms associated with high levels of illicit drug use and misuse. These include, but are not limited to drug dependence (psychological and physical); withdrawal syndromes; tolerance; substance related deaths which can result from poisoning/overdose, violent attacks, and suicides; as well as the development of other medical illnesses such as HIV/AIDS or hepatitis (AGENCY, 2007, Equal Partners: Health and Human Rights, 2007). At the community level, drug use can cause nuisance as a result of people discarding drug related litter such as used needles and syringes (Power, 1994). High levels of drug use and drug dealing can contribute more generally to problems in neighbourhoods and communities with little cultural capital and high levels of poverty, and considerable affects crime levels (Power, 1994).The economic burden of health harms related to drug use and misuse is alarming with the National Health Service (NHS) spending close to  £500 million annually on drug misuse associated harms and drug related crime costing the country an estimated  £13.32 billion (Department of Health and National Treatment Agency, 2007). Recent trends among drug users, particularly injecting drug users (IDU), suggest that drug-related harms have increased in recent years. The Health Protection Agency (HPA) report, Shooting Up: Infections among injecting drug users in the United Kingdom 2006, an update: October 2007 (Pearson, 1987) describes the high levels (48%) of sharing injecting equipment amongst current injecting drug users, with mixing containers such as spoons being the most commonly shared items (NHS, 2011). 2.4 What is health related harm Some of the main concerns about health related harm and drug use related to blood borne viruses, such as hepatitis and HIV. Hepatitis C is the most significant infection affecting injecting drug users (IDUs) with 41% of IDUs having been infected. There is marked regional variation with a prevalence of 22% in the North East to a prevalence of 57% and 60% in London and the North West regions respectively. Alcohol use and misuse is the single biggest contributory factor to those with hepatitis C infection developing fatal liver disease (NHS, 2011, Pearson, 1987). In the UK, hepatitis B is usually acquired in adulthood, with sexual activity or injecting drug use being the most commonly reported routes of infection. Infection with the hepatitis B virus typically causes an acute infection, with a small number of those infected going on to develop chronic disease. Infection with hepatitis B is preventable using a safe and effective vaccine, but continues to cause serious ill health in IDUs and their communities. In 2005, the percentage of IDUs with evidence of past or current hepatitis B infection was 19% (613 of 3,175), which is similar to rates since 1995. There is substantial variation between regions, with North West having the highest rates of 31% (221 of 777), and the lowest in the Yorkshire and the Humber region at 5.5% (14 of 253) (NHS, 2011, Pearson, 1987). HIV infection among drug users remains relatively uncommon in the United Kingdom but there is some evidence of both increasing prevalence and transmission. The prevalence of HIV infection in current IDUs in England and Wales in 2005 was 2.1%, the highest prevalence ever seen. In London the prevalence in current IDUs was 4.3%, which is similar to recent years, but elsewhere in England and Wales the prevalence in current injectors was 1.6% which is more than double the prevalence in 2004 (Pearson, 1987, NHS, 2011). In addition to the infectious diseases mentioned above, site infections are also considered health related harm. There are continuing problems with infections associated with injecting including tetanus and wound botulism. These can result from poor skin hygiene, environmental conditions, and/or poor injecting practice (NHS, 2011, Pearson, 1987). 2.5 Role of community pharmacy and needle exchange Open access drug services, such as needle exchange, can provide a crucial interface with drug users who are not currently engaged in structured drug treatment and who are often, by definition, at greater risk of drug-related harm (NHS, 2009/10). For this reason, this aspect of drug-related harm reduction is highlighted here. In recent years, there has been an increased awareness of the rising levels of hepatitis (B and C), thus increasing the recognition of the need for better distribution of clean injecting equipment (Matheson et al., 2007). The model of delivery for needle exchange (specialist centre based, detached, outreach or pharmacy-based) will vary according to locally defined need (NHS, 2009/10). Community pharmacists play an important role in the UK in the provision of harm reduction services and in the treatment of drug misusers. They distribute clean needles through exchange or sale and dispense substitute drugs (primarily methadone) for maintenance and detoxification, often supervising the self-administration in the pharmacy to ensure it is taken by the intended person (Matheson et al., 2007). Participation in needle exchange at pharmacy level in Scotland has increased overall but more so in some NHS areas than others. It is still relatively low having only increased from 9.7 to 12.5% compared with England where 19% of pharmacies provide this service (Matheson et al., 2007, Sheridan J, 1996) As discussed above, needle exchange and open access services offer an opportunity not only to provide access to safer injecting materials but also to engage with service users who are not in contact with more structured services. They provide health promotion advice, information and materials, brief interventions, healthcare checks, and referral on to other specialist services (NHS, 2009/10). Increasing the number of pharmacy schemes is likely to offer the best opportunity for the rapid expansion of distribution sites, especially for out of hours cover, supported by robust local co-ordination and monitoring of needle and syringe exchange programmes (NHS, 2009/10). Closely connected to such needle exchange programmes are community-based outreach programmes, with which they are sometimes linked. Without necessarily distributing needles and syringes, these aim to obtain face-to-face contact with IDUs, provide literature about HIV risk reduction, distribute condoms and bleach for disinfection of needles and syringes (especially where needle exchange programmes are not operating), promote teaching and modelling of HIV risk reduction by network leaders, referral to services, improve access to risk assessment and HIV testing, provide counselling and support community organising (Hunt, 2010). It has been shown that such community-based responses can be an effective component of the overall drug response (Hunt, 2010). 2.6 Methadone and other replacement therapies Methadone maintenance treatment is the most researched treatment currently available for people who are dependent on opioids. Its use is supported by an evidence-base developed over almost 40 years and from across many different countries. It retains patients in treatment for longer than any alternative, non-replacement therapy, and has a superior effect on the reduction of heroin use and crime associated with opioid dependence (Power, 1994). 2.7 Historical perspective and the policy development The first controls of drug possession were introduced in the First World War, and in the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1920 (Stimson, 2010). At this time, prescribing heroin and morphine was considered legitimate medical treatment for people who would otherwise be unable to withdraw- a very similar concept to the harm reduction strategy known today- and thus helping the patient lead a useful and fairly normal life. The harm reduction approach to drug use first developed among Dutch heroin users in the 1970s. The original Junkiebond (users union) of Rotterdam spread fast into a national federation which successfully negotiated substantial decriminalization, the prescription of methadone, and the provision of clean needles and syringes. The new approach rapidly spread through Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the UK, France, and other northern European countries (Des Jarlais, 1993, Van Solinge, 1999, Gowan et al., 2012). CHAPTER 4 POLICY ANALYSIS 4.1 Drug Policy Despite the long-standing political prominence of the problem, relatively coherent strategies and substantial investments, the United Kingdom has the highest level of dependent drug use and among the highest levels of recreational drug use in Europe (Reuter, 2007). There are vast arrays of different policies and programmes working towards solving problems related to drug use and drug related harm at all levels, and they vary considerably in their effectiveness. In this chapter, policies in the United Kingdom in general and England in particular will be considered. The United Kingdom consists of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, within which England accounts for 85% of the UK population (Office for National Statistics, 2012). A number of powers have been devolved from the UK Parliament to Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, but each has different levels of devolved responsibilities. The United Kingdom Government is responsible for setting the overall strategy and for its delivery in the devolved administrations only in matters where it has reserved power (Department of Health, 2011). In the United Kingdom, illicit drug policy and attitude towards harm reduction strategies has shifted with government changes. Between 1987 and 1997, there was a public health approach. The aim was to help problem drug users to lead healthier lives, and to limit the damage they might cause to themselves or others (Stimson, 2000). Harm reduction developed in a context of a healthy policy although there were hitches in getting it accepted, for the most part it was well integrated into an amenable existing framework (Stimson, 2000). In 2002 the Liberal Democrats launched new drug policy in which it was proposed that imprisonment should no longer be a punishment option and cannabis should be legalised. The Lib Dem policies were evidence-based, rejecting artificial distinctions between the harm caused by legal and illegal drugs, and rejecting enforcement and prison as primary policy tools based on evidence of ineffectiveness. Unsuccessful in promoting their policies in 2002, in 2011, experts backed calls to be made at the Liberal Democrats conference for the decriminalisation of all drugs, saying it would not lead to a surge in drug use (Travis, 2011). This call came not long after the launch of a new drug strategy, launched in December 2010, replacing that of the previous Government. The 2010 strategy sets out a fundamentally different approach to preventing drug use in communities, and in supporting recovery from drug and alcohol dependence. Some of the main aspects include the responsibility it puts on the indi vidual to seek help and overcome dependency as well as providing a more holistic approach, by addressing other issues in addition to treatment to support people dependent on drugs or alcohol, such as offending, employment and housing. The 2010 strategy aims to reduce demand and takes an uncompromising approach to crack down on those involved in the drug supply both at home and abroad. With the devolution of power, it puts accountability in the hands of local communities to tackle drugs and the harms they cause. The coverage of the new strategy is as follows: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ health, education, housing and social care confined to England à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ policing and the criminal justice system England and Wales à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the work of the Department for Work and Pensions England, Wales and Scotland (Home Office, 2012) The Scottish Government and Welsh Governments national drug strategies were published in 2008 and all three strategies aim to make further progress on reducing harm and each focuses on recovery (Department of Health, 2011). The changes in the Governments drug policies have not gone without remark. In response to the change in Government strategy, the recently published document Charting New Waters from the UK Drug Policy Commission examined potential threats to drug services. The radical shift from centralised oversight toward local control of commissioning services, raised concerns and questions about whether the changes will deliver the outcomes that people need or help control public expenditure. The report concludes that the new policy is a major social experiment, the outcomes of which are uncertain (OHara, 2012). Research by the UK Drug Policy commission has shown that in addition to the reforms to police, justice, health and local council services in England, these systemic changes together with the budget cuts risk reducing the ability of local areas to respond effectively to problems caused by illicit drug use (Beck 2012). 4.2 UK policy approach As is the case in most European countries, drug-related deaths, infectious diseases, co-morbidity and other health consequences are key policy issues within the United Kingdoms drug strategies (EMCDDA, 2012). Interventions include information campaigns on the risks associated with drug use for different target groups, as well as information on safer injecting and safer sex practices, needle exchange schemes, infection counselling, support and testing, and vaccinations against hepatitis B. In most parts of the United Kingdom, particularly in England, there is a four-tier system of treatment for drug abuse. Tier 1 refers to generic interventions such as information and advice, screening and referral to more specialist services. Tier 2 refers to open-access interventions, such as drop-in services providing advice, information and some harm reduction services such as syringe exchange. Tier 3 services are specialist community services and include prescribing services, structured day programmes and structured psychosocial interventions, such as counselling and therapy and community-based detoxification. Tier 4 services are inpatient services, including detoxification and residential rehabilitation. The majority of structured treatment is delivered at Tier 3, predominantly through community-based specialist drug treatment services (EMCDDA, 2012). 4.3 Drugs and the law The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, with amendments, is the main law regulating drug control in the UK. Drug use per se is not an offence under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971: it is the possession of the drug which constitutes an offence (EMCDDA, 2012). The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 divides controlled substances into 3 Classes (A, B, C) based on harm, with Class A being the most harmful. The classification of a drug has several consequences, specifically in determining the legal penalties for importation, supply, and possession, as well as the degree of police effort targeted at restricting its use (Nutt et al., 2007). The actual classifi